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  • About
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  • Nuclear Power Plant
    • History of NPPs
    • Nuclear Power Plant
      • Nuclear Island
      • Turbine Island
      • Containment Building
      • Spent Fuel Pool
      • Steam Generator
      • Pressurizer
      • Reactor Coolant Pump
    • Turbine Generator
      • Principle of Operation
      • Thermodynamics of Steam Turbines
      • Steam Turbines
        • How does it work
        • Impulse Turbine
        • Reaction Turbine
        • Condensing Turbine
        • Back-pressure Turbine
        • Reheat Turbine
        • Extraction Turbine
        • Turbine Blades
        • Governing of Steam Turbine
        • Turbine Trip
        • HP Turbine
        • LP Turbine
      • Main Condenser
      • Turbine Bypass System
      • Cooling System
      • Cooling Towers
      • Deaerator
      • Feedwater Heating System
      • Main Generator
    • Types of Reactors
      • Light Water Reactor
      • Pressurized Water Reactor
      • Boiling Water Reactor
      • Small Modular Reactor
      • Supercritical Water Reactor
      • Heavy Water Reactor
      • Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor
      • Fast Neutron Reactor
      • Thorium Reactor
    • Nuclear Reactor
      • Reactor Vessel
      • Core Barrel
      • Neutron Reflector
      • Instrumentation
        • Incore Instrumentation
        • Excore Instrumentation
        • Nitrogen-16 Power Monitoring
      • Volume of RCS
      • Reactor Criticality
      • Reactor Power
      • Power Distribution
      • Fuel Consumption
      • Ductile–brittle Transition Temperature
    • Reactor Core
    • Nuclear Fuel
      • Fuel Cycle
        • Once-through Cycle
        • Wait and See
        • Twice-through Cycle
        • Uranium Mining
        • Uranium Milling
        • Yellowcake
        • Uranium Conversion
        • Uranium Enrichment
      • Fuel Assembly
        • Fuel Pellets
        • Fuel Cladding
      • Uranium
      • Thorium
      • Conversion Factor
      • Fuel Loading Pattern
      • Burnable Absorbers
      • High Burnup Fuel
      • Temperature Profile
      • Pressure Drop
      • Hydraulic Lift Force
    • Spent Nuclear Fuel
      • Spent Fuel Management
      • Interim Storage
      • Dry Storage
      • Spent Fuel Cask
      • Wet Storage
    • Radioactive Waste
      • High-level Waste
      • Intermediate-level Waste
      • Low-level Waste
      • Final Disposal
      • Deep Geological Repository
    • Neutron Moderator
    • Control Rods
  • Nuclear Physics
    • Laws of Conservation
      • Conservation of Matter
      • Conservation of Energy
      • Conservation of Momentum
      • Conservation of Angular Momentum
      • Conservation of Electric Charge
      • Conservation of Lepton Number
      • Conservation of Baryon Number
      • Conservation of Isospin
      • Conservation of Parity
    • Fundamental Particles
      • Quarks
      • Leptons
      • Electron
      • Baryons
      • Hadrons
      • Proton
      • Neutron
      • Photon
      • The Standard Model
      • Antimatter
    • Fundamental Forces
      • Strong Interaction
      • Weak Interaction
      • Electromagnetic Interaction
      • Gravitational Interaction
    • Atomic Theory
      • Atomism – Atomos
      • Discovery of Electron
      • Thomson Model
      • Discovery of Nucleus
      • Rutherford Model
      • Bohr Model
      • Discovery of Proton
      • Pauli Principle
    • Atom
      • Electron Cloud
      • Atomic Nucleus
      • Liquid Drop Model
      • Shell Model
      • Magic Numbers
      • Nucleons
      • Nuclides
      • Isotopes
      • Isotones
      • Isobars
      • Isomers
      • Chemical Properties
        • Electron Affinity
        • Electronegativity
        • Ionization Energy
        • Periodic Table
    • Atomic Structure
      • Atomic Number
      • Mass Number
      • Neutron Number
      • Chemical Elements
    • Nuclear Energy
    • Radiation
      • Alpha Radiation
      • Beta Radiation
      • Gamma Radiation
      • X-Rays
      • Neutrons
    • Nuclear Stability
    • Radioactive Decay
      • Alpha Decay
      • Beta Decay
      • Gamma Decay
      • Electron Capture
      • Internal Conversion
      • Neutron Decay
      • Proton Decay
      • Spontaneous Fission
      • Decay Chain
      • Radioactive Equilibrium
    • Interaction – Radiation
      • Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles
        • Alpha Particle
        • Fission Fragments
        • Stopping Power – Bethe Formula
        • Bragg Curve and Bragg Peak
      • Interaction of Beta Radiation with Matter
        • Beta Particle
        • Spectrum of Beta Particles
        • Bremsstrahlung
        • Cherenkov Radiation
        • Positron Interactions
      • Interaction of Gamma Radiation with Matter
        • Gamma Rays
        • Photoelectric Effect
        • Compton Scattering
        • Pair Production
        • Gamma Ray Attenuation
      • Interaction of Neutrons with Matter
      • Interaction of Antineutrino with Matter
      • Shielding of Ionizing Radiation
    • Nuclear Reactions
    • Binding Energy
    • Nuclear Fusion
  • Reactor Physics
    • Neutron Reactions
      • Direct Reactions
      • Compound Nucleus
      • Elastic Scattering
      • Inelastic Scattering
      • Neutron Absorption
      • Radiative Capture
      • Neutron Emission
      • Particle Ejection
    • Nuclear Fission
      • Basics of Nuclear Fission
      • Principles of Nuclear Fission
      • Nuclear Binding Energy
      • Fission vs Fusion
      • Critical Energy
      • Energy Release from Fission
      • Fission Fragments
      • Prompt Neutrons
      • Delayed Neutrons
      • Capture-to-fission Ratio
      • Fissionable Material
      • Fissile Material
      • Fertile Material
    • Neutron Cross-sections
      • Definition of Cross-section
      • Nuclear Radius
      • Microscopic Cross-section
      • Atomic Number Density
      • Macroscopic Cross-section
      • Mean Free Path
      • Doppler Broadening
      • Self-shielding
      • Neutron Flux
      • Neutron Fluence
      • Reaction Rate
      • Neutron Flux Spectra
    • Nuclear Chain Reaction
      • Four Factor Formula
      • Six Factor Formula
      • Fast Fission Factor
      • Fast Non-leakage Probability
      • Resonance Escape Probability
      • Thermal Non-leakage Probability
      • Thermal Utilization Factor
      • Reproduction Factor
      • Operational changes
      • Neutron Generation
      • Reactor Criticality
      • Reactivity
      • Reactivity Feedbacks
    • Diffusion Theory
      • Fick’s Law
      • Diffusion Coefficient
      • Neutron Balance
      • Diffusion Equation
      • Boundary Conditions
      • Diffusion Length
      • Nonmultiplying Systems
      • Multiplying Systems
      • Multigroup Method
      • Migration Length
      • Geometrical Buckling
      • Neutron Leakage
      • Reflected Reactor
      • Reactor Power
      • Numerical Solution
      • Conventional Reactor
    • Reactor Dynamics
      • Reactor Kinetics
      • Prompt vs Delayed
      • Point Kinetics Equations
      • Inhour Equation
      • Approximate Solutions
      • Experimental Methods
      • Inverse Kinetics – Reactimeter
      • Reactivity Feedbacks
      • Reactor Stability
      • Over vs Under-moderated
      • SCRAM – Reactor Trip
      • Subcritical Multiplication
      • Source Neutrons
    • Reactor Operation
      • Reactor Startup
        • Plant Heatup
        • Criticality Approach
        • Physics Tests
        • Synchronization of Generator
      • Reactor Control
        • Reactor Power Control
        • Power Plant Control
        • Pressure Control
        • Temperature Control
        • Axial Flux Difference
        • Power Tilt
        • Hot Channel Factors
        • Base Load
        • Load Following
      • Fuel Burnup
        • Units of Fuel Burnup
        • Fuel Depletion
        • Nuclear Transmutation
        • Excess Reactivity
        • Neutron Poisons
        • Reactor Slagging
        • High Burnup Fuel
      • Xenon 135
        • Differential Equations
        • Equilibrium Xenon
        • Xenon Transients
        • Iodine Pit
        • Spatial Xenon Oscillations
      • Samarium 149
      • Reactor Shutdown
      • Shutdown Margin
      • Residual Heat
      • Reactor Cooling
  • Engineering
    • Fluid Dynamics
      • Definition of Fluid
      • Continuity Equation
      • Bernoulli’s Equation
      • Momentum Formula
      • Navier-Stokes
      • Flow Regime
      • Reynolds Number
      • Laminar Flow
      • Turbulent Flow
      • Internal Flow
      • External Flow
      • Boundary Layer
      • Head Loss
      • Major Loss
      • Minor Loss
      • Drag
        • Friction Drag
        • Form Drag
        • Drag Coefficient
        • Drag Force
        • Example: Drag Force
      • Two-phase Flow
      • Centrifugal Pumps
    • Thermodynamics
      • Properties
        • Mass and Weight
        • Volume
        • Density
        • Pressure
        • Temperature
      • What is Energy
        • Energy Units
        • Forms of Energy
        • Mechanical Energy
        • Internal Energy
        • Enthalpy
        • Entropy
        • Nuclear Energy
        • Conservation of Energy
        • Mass-Energy Equivalence
        • Energy Sources
      • Laws
        • Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
        • First Law of Thermodynamics
        • Heat in Thermodynamics
        • Work in Thermodynamics
        • Second Law of Thermodynamics
        • Heat Engines
        • Thermal Efficiency
        • Third Law of Thermodynamics
      • Ideal Gas Law
        • What is Ideal Gas
        • Ideal Gas Model
        • Equation of State
        • Validity the Law
        • Joule’s Second Law
        • E = 3/2 NkT
        • Cv = 3/2R
        • Cp = Cv + R
        • Boyle-Mariotte Law
        • Charles’s Law
        • Guy-Lussac’s Law
        • Avogadro’s Law
      • Processes
        • Reversible Process
        • Irreversible Process
        • Cyclic Process
        • Isentropic Process
        • Adiabatic Process
        • Isothermal Process
        • Isobaric Process
        • Isochoric Process
        • Polytropic Process
        • Throttling Process
      • Cycles
        • Carnot Cycle
        • Otto Cycle
        • Atkinson Cycle
        • Diesel Cycle
        • Dual Cycle
        • Brayton Cycle
        • Ericsson Cycle
        • Rankine Cycle
        • Heating and Air Conditioning
      • Steam Tables
    • Heat Transfer
      • Introduction
        • Definition of Heat
        • Heat Flux
      • Characteristic Numbers
        • Reynolds Number
        • Prandtl Number
        • Nusselt Number
        • Grashof Number
        • Rayleigh Number
        • Péclet Number
        • Schmidt Number
        • Sherwood Number
        • Lewis Number
        • Eckert Number
      • Thermal Conduction
        • Thermal Conductivity
        • Fourier’s Law
        • Thermal Resistance
        • Heat Equation
        • Thermal Diffusivity
        • Problems with Solution
        • Critical Thickness
      • Convection
        • Mechanism on Convection
        • Boundary Layer
        • Newton’s Law of Cooling
        • Heat Transfer Coefficient
        • U-factor
        • Nusselt Number
        • External vs Internal
        • Laminar vs Turbulent
        • Dittus-Boelter Equation
        • Problem with Solution
        • Natural Convection
        • Natural Circulation
      • Boiling and Condensation
        • Boiling
        • Boiling Modes
        • Pool Boiling
        • Natural Convection Boiling
        • Nucleate Boiling
        • Transition Boiling
        • Film Boiling
        • Leidenfrost Effect
        • Subcooled Boiling
        • Saturated Boiling
        • Flow Boiling
        • Boiling Crisis
        • DNB
        • Dryout
        • Condensation
      • Radiation
        • Thermal Radiation
        • Emissivity
        • Absorptivity
        • Kirchhoff’s Law
        • Stefan–Boltzmann Law
        • Blackbody Radiation
        • Ultraviolet Catastrophe
        • Planck’s Law
        • Wien’s Law
      • Heat Exchangers
        • Types of Heat Exchangers
        • Heat Transfer Coefficient
        • LMTD
        • Example – Calculation of Heat Exchanger
      • Heat Generation
      • Energy Storage
      • Heat Losses
        • Thermal Insulation
        • Properties of Insulation
        • Insulation Materials
          • Glass Wool
          • Stone Wool
          • Expanded Polystyrene
          • Extruded Polystyrene
          • Polyurethane Foam
          • Polyisocyanurate Foam
          • Cellulose Insulation
          • Cork Insulation
          • Cotton Insulation
          • Aerogel
          • Vacuum Insulation Panels
        • Space Blanket
        • Building Insulation
          • Facade Insulation
          • Cavity Wall Insulation
          • Attic Insulation
    • Materials Science
      • Classification
      • Chemical Bonds
        • Ionic Bond
        • Metallic bond
        • Covalent bond
        • Hydrogen bond
      • Crystal Structures
        • Crystal Lattice
        • Body-centered Cubic
        • Face-centered Cubic
        • Hexagonal Close-packed
        • Packing Factor
        • Grain Structure
        • Polymorphism
      • Defects
        • Vacancy
        • Interstitial Defect
        • Substitutional Defect
        • Frenkel Defect
        • Dislocations
        • Planar Defects
      • Material Properties
        • Strength
        • Hooke’s law
        • Ductility
        • Malleability
        • Toughness
        • Brittleness
        • Resilience
        • Hardness
        • Creep
        • Thermal Properties
        • Electrical Properties
        • Magnetic Properties
      • Selected Materials
        • Water
        • Steam
        • Supercritical Fluid
        • Boron
        • Cadmium
        • Gadolinium
        • Liquid Metals
          • Sodium and NaK
          • Lead and Lead-bismuth Eutectic
    • Radiation Protection
      • Radioactivity
      • Units of Radioactivity
        • Curie
        • Becquerel
        • Rutherford
      • Decay Law
        • Decay Constant
        • Half-Life
      • Quantities and Units
      • Exposure
        • Roentgen – Unit
      • Kerma
      • Absorbed Dose
        • Gray – Unit
        • RAD – Unit
      • Equivalent Dose
        • Sievert – Unit
        • REM – Unit
      • Effective Dose
        • Committed Dose
        • Collective Dose
      • Biological Effects
        • Deterministic Effects
        • Stochastic Effects
        • LNT model
        • Radiation Hormesis
      • Protection
        • Dose Limits
        • Dose Monitoring
        • ALARA
        • Contamination
        • Internal Dose
      • Sources of Radiation
        • Natural Background
        • Cosmic Radiation
        • Terrestrial Radiation
        • Radon – Health Effects
        • Internal Radiation
        • Cosmogenic Radionuclides
        • Man-made Sources
        • Medical Exposures
        • Nuclear Fallout
        • Smoking Cigarettes
        • Electricity Generation
      • Fear of Radiation
    • Radiation Dosimetry
      • Radiation Dosimeter
      • Film Badge
      • TLD
      • Electronic Dosimeter
      • MOSFET Dosimeter
      • DIS Dosimeter
      • OSL Dosimeter
      • Self-Reading Dosimeters
      • Detectors in NPPs
        • Survey Meters
        • Hand & Shoe Monitor
        • Full-Body Monitor
        • Portal Monitor
        • Whole-Body Counter
        • Radiation Frisker
    • Radiation Detection
      • Detectors
        • Detection of Alpha
        • Detection of Beta
        • Detection of Gamma
        • Detection of X-Rays
        • Detection of Neutrons
        • Time of Flight
        • Dead Time
      • Gaseous Detectors
        • Detector Voltage
        • Ionization Chamber
        • Proportional Counter
        • Geiger Counter
      • Scintillation Counters
        • What is Scintillation
        • Inorganic Scintillators
        • NaI(Tl) scintillators
        • Organic Scintillators
        • Photomultiplier Tube
      • Semiconductors
        • Semiconductivity
        • Types of Semiconductors
        • Silicon Detectors
        • Germanium Detectors
        • HPGe Detectors
      • Gamma Spectroscopy
      • Cherenkov Detector
      • Calorimeter
      • Cloud Chamber
      • Self-Powered Detector
  • Search
Search
  • All Articles
  • —————
  • About
    • Advertise Here
    • Privacy Policy
    • Cookies Statement
    • Copyright Notice
    • Disclaimer
    • Sitemap
    • Contact Us
  • Nuclear Power Plant
    • History of NPPs
    • Nuclear Power Plant
      • Nuclear Island
      • Turbine Island
      • Containment Building
      • Spent Fuel Pool
      • Steam Generator
      • Pressurizer
      • Reactor Coolant Pump
    • Turbine Generator
      • Principle of Operation
      • Thermodynamics of Steam Turbines
      • Steam Turbines
        • How does it work
        • Impulse Turbine
        • Reaction Turbine
        • Condensing Turbine
        • Back-pressure Turbine
        • Reheat Turbine
        • Extraction Turbine
        • Turbine Blades
        • Governing of Steam Turbine
        • Turbine Trip
        • HP Turbine
        • LP Turbine
      • Main Condenser
      • Turbine Bypass System
      • Cooling System
      • Cooling Towers
      • Deaerator
      • Feedwater Heating System
      • Main Generator
    • Types of Reactors
      • Light Water Reactor
      • Pressurized Water Reactor
      • Boiling Water Reactor
      • Small Modular Reactor
      • Supercritical Water Reactor
      • Heavy Water Reactor
      • Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor
      • Fast Neutron Reactor
      • Thorium Reactor
    • Nuclear Reactor
      • Reactor Vessel
      • Core Barrel
      • Neutron Reflector
      • Instrumentation
        • Incore Instrumentation
        • Excore Instrumentation
        • Nitrogen-16 Power Monitoring
      • Volume of RCS
      • Reactor Criticality
      • Reactor Power
      • Power Distribution
      • Fuel Consumption
      • Ductile–brittle Transition Temperature
    • Reactor Core
    • Nuclear Fuel
      • Fuel Cycle
        • Once-through Cycle
        • Wait and See
        • Twice-through Cycle
        • Uranium Mining
        • Uranium Milling
        • Yellowcake
        • Uranium Conversion
        • Uranium Enrichment
      • Fuel Assembly
        • Fuel Pellets
        • Fuel Cladding
      • Uranium
      • Thorium
      • Conversion Factor
      • Fuel Loading Pattern
      • Burnable Absorbers
      • High Burnup Fuel
      • Temperature Profile
      • Pressure Drop
      • Hydraulic Lift Force
    • Spent Nuclear Fuel
      • Spent Fuel Management
      • Interim Storage
      • Dry Storage
      • Spent Fuel Cask
      • Wet Storage
    • Radioactive Waste
      • High-level Waste
      • Intermediate-level Waste
      • Low-level Waste
      • Final Disposal
      • Deep Geological Repository
    • Neutron Moderator
    • Control Rods
  • Nuclear Physics
    • Laws of Conservation
      • Conservation of Matter
      • Conservation of Energy
      • Conservation of Momentum
      • Conservation of Angular Momentum
      • Conservation of Electric Charge
      • Conservation of Lepton Number
      • Conservation of Baryon Number
      • Conservation of Isospin
      • Conservation of Parity
    • Fundamental Particles
      • Quarks
      • Leptons
      • Electron
      • Baryons
      • Hadrons
      • Proton
      • Neutron
      • Photon
      • The Standard Model
      • Antimatter
    • Fundamental Forces
      • Strong Interaction
      • Weak Interaction
      • Electromagnetic Interaction
      • Gravitational Interaction
    • Atomic Theory
      • Atomism – Atomos
      • Discovery of Electron
      • Thomson Model
      • Discovery of Nucleus
      • Rutherford Model
      • Bohr Model
      • Discovery of Proton
      • Pauli Principle
    • Atom
      • Electron Cloud
      • Atomic Nucleus
      • Liquid Drop Model
      • Shell Model
      • Magic Numbers
      • Nucleons
      • Nuclides
      • Isotopes
      • Isotones
      • Isobars
      • Isomers
      • Chemical Properties
        • Electron Affinity
        • Electronegativity
        • Ionization Energy
        • Periodic Table
    • Atomic Structure
      • Atomic Number
      • Mass Number
      • Neutron Number
      • Chemical Elements
    • Nuclear Energy
    • Radiation
      • Alpha Radiation
      • Beta Radiation
      • Gamma Radiation
      • X-Rays
      • Neutrons
    • Nuclear Stability
    • Radioactive Decay
      • Alpha Decay
      • Beta Decay
      • Gamma Decay
      • Electron Capture
      • Internal Conversion
      • Neutron Decay
      • Proton Decay
      • Spontaneous Fission
      • Decay Chain
      • Radioactive Equilibrium
    • Interaction – Radiation
      • Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles
        • Alpha Particle
        • Fission Fragments
        • Stopping Power – Bethe Formula
        • Bragg Curve and Bragg Peak
      • Interaction of Beta Radiation with Matter
        • Beta Particle
        • Spectrum of Beta Particles
        • Bremsstrahlung
        • Cherenkov Radiation
        • Positron Interactions
      • Interaction of Gamma Radiation with Matter
        • Gamma Rays
        • Photoelectric Effect
        • Compton Scattering
        • Pair Production
        • Gamma Ray Attenuation
      • Interaction of Neutrons with Matter
      • Interaction of Antineutrino with Matter
      • Shielding of Ionizing Radiation
    • Nuclear Reactions
    • Binding Energy
    • Nuclear Fusion
  • Reactor Physics
    • Neutron Reactions
      • Direct Reactions
      • Compound Nucleus
      • Elastic Scattering
      • Inelastic Scattering
      • Neutron Absorption
      • Radiative Capture
      • Neutron Emission
      • Particle Ejection
    • Nuclear Fission
      • Basics of Nuclear Fission
      • Principles of Nuclear Fission
      • Nuclear Binding Energy
      • Fission vs Fusion
      • Critical Energy
      • Energy Release from Fission
      • Fission Fragments
      • Prompt Neutrons
      • Delayed Neutrons
      • Capture-to-fission Ratio
      • Fissionable Material
      • Fissile Material
      • Fertile Material
    • Neutron Cross-sections
      • Definition of Cross-section
      • Nuclear Radius
      • Microscopic Cross-section
      • Atomic Number Density
      • Macroscopic Cross-section
      • Mean Free Path
      • Doppler Broadening
      • Self-shielding
      • Neutron Flux
      • Neutron Fluence
      • Reaction Rate
      • Neutron Flux Spectra
    • Nuclear Chain Reaction
      • Four Factor Formula
      • Six Factor Formula
      • Fast Fission Factor
      • Fast Non-leakage Probability
      • Resonance Escape Probability
      • Thermal Non-leakage Probability
      • Thermal Utilization Factor
      • Reproduction Factor
      • Operational changes
      • Neutron Generation
      • Reactor Criticality
      • Reactivity
      • Reactivity Feedbacks
    • Diffusion Theory
      • Fick’s Law
      • Diffusion Coefficient
      • Neutron Balance
      • Diffusion Equation
      • Boundary Conditions
      • Diffusion Length
      • Nonmultiplying Systems
      • Multiplying Systems
      • Multigroup Method
      • Migration Length
      • Geometrical Buckling
      • Neutron Leakage
      • Reflected Reactor
      • Reactor Power
      • Numerical Solution
      • Conventional Reactor
    • Reactor Dynamics
      • Reactor Kinetics
      • Prompt vs Delayed
      • Point Kinetics Equations
      • Inhour Equation
      • Approximate Solutions
      • Experimental Methods
      • Inverse Kinetics – Reactimeter
      • Reactivity Feedbacks
      • Reactor Stability
      • Over vs Under-moderated
      • SCRAM – Reactor Trip
      • Subcritical Multiplication
      • Source Neutrons
    • Reactor Operation
      • Reactor Startup
        • Plant Heatup
        • Criticality Approach
        • Physics Tests
        • Synchronization of Generator
      • Reactor Control
        • Reactor Power Control
        • Power Plant Control
        • Pressure Control
        • Temperature Control
        • Axial Flux Difference
        • Power Tilt
        • Hot Channel Factors
        • Base Load
        • Load Following
      • Fuel Burnup
        • Units of Fuel Burnup
        • Fuel Depletion
        • Nuclear Transmutation
        • Excess Reactivity
        • Neutron Poisons
        • Reactor Slagging
        • High Burnup Fuel
      • Xenon 135
        • Differential Equations
        • Equilibrium Xenon
        • Xenon Transients
        • Iodine Pit
        • Spatial Xenon Oscillations
      • Samarium 149
      • Reactor Shutdown
      • Shutdown Margin
      • Residual Heat
      • Reactor Cooling
  • Engineering
    • Fluid Dynamics
      • Definition of Fluid
      • Continuity Equation
      • Bernoulli’s Equation
      • Momentum Formula
      • Navier-Stokes
      • Flow Regime
      • Reynolds Number
      • Laminar Flow
      • Turbulent Flow
      • Internal Flow
      • External Flow
      • Boundary Layer
      • Head Loss
      • Major Loss
      • Minor Loss
      • Drag
        • Friction Drag
        • Form Drag
        • Drag Coefficient
        • Drag Force
        • Example: Drag Force
      • Two-phase Flow
      • Centrifugal Pumps
    • Thermodynamics
      • Properties
        • Mass and Weight
        • Volume
        • Density
        • Pressure
        • Temperature
      • What is Energy
        • Energy Units
        • Forms of Energy
        • Mechanical Energy
        • Internal Energy
        • Enthalpy
        • Entropy
        • Nuclear Energy
        • Conservation of Energy
        • Mass-Energy Equivalence
        • Energy Sources
      • Laws
        • Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
        • First Law of Thermodynamics
        • Heat in Thermodynamics
        • Work in Thermodynamics
        • Second Law of Thermodynamics
        • Heat Engines
        • Thermal Efficiency
        • Third Law of Thermodynamics
      • Ideal Gas Law
        • What is Ideal Gas
        • Ideal Gas Model
        • Equation of State
        • Validity the Law
        • Joule’s Second Law
        • E = 3/2 NkT
        • Cv = 3/2R
        • Cp = Cv + R
        • Boyle-Mariotte Law
        • Charles’s Law
        • Guy-Lussac’s Law
        • Avogadro’s Law
      • Processes
        • Reversible Process
        • Irreversible Process
        • Cyclic Process
        • Isentropic Process
        • Adiabatic Process
        • Isothermal Process
        • Isobaric Process
        • Isochoric Process
        • Polytropic Process
        • Throttling Process
      • Cycles
        • Carnot Cycle
        • Otto Cycle
        • Atkinson Cycle
        • Diesel Cycle
        • Dual Cycle
        • Brayton Cycle
        • Ericsson Cycle
        • Rankine Cycle
        • Heating and Air Conditioning
      • Steam Tables
    • Heat Transfer
      • Introduction
        • Definition of Heat
        • Heat Flux
      • Characteristic Numbers
        • Reynolds Number
        • Prandtl Number
        • Nusselt Number
        • Grashof Number
        • Rayleigh Number
        • Péclet Number
        • Schmidt Number
        • Sherwood Number
        • Lewis Number
        • Eckert Number
      • Thermal Conduction
        • Thermal Conductivity
        • Fourier’s Law
        • Thermal Resistance
        • Heat Equation
        • Thermal Diffusivity
        • Problems with Solution
        • Critical Thickness
      • Convection
        • Mechanism on Convection
        • Boundary Layer
        • Newton’s Law of Cooling
        • Heat Transfer Coefficient
        • U-factor
        • Nusselt Number
        • External vs Internal
        • Laminar vs Turbulent
        • Dittus-Boelter Equation
        • Problem with Solution
        • Natural Convection
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      • Boiling and Condensation
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        • Nucleate Boiling
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        • Leidenfrost Effect
        • Subcooled Boiling
        • Saturated Boiling
        • Flow Boiling
        • Boiling Crisis
        • DNB
        • Dryout
        • Condensation
      • Radiation
        • Thermal Radiation
        • Emissivity
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        • Kirchhoff’s Law
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        • Planck’s Law
        • Wien’s Law
      • Heat Exchangers
        • Types of Heat Exchangers
        • Heat Transfer Coefficient
        • LMTD
        • Example – Calculation of Heat Exchanger
      • Heat Generation
      • Energy Storage
      • Heat Losses
        • Thermal Insulation
        • Properties of Insulation
        • Insulation Materials
          • Glass Wool
          • Stone Wool
          • Expanded Polystyrene
          • Extruded Polystyrene
          • Polyurethane Foam
          • Polyisocyanurate Foam
          • Cellulose Insulation
          • Cork Insulation
          • Cotton Insulation
          • Aerogel
          • Vacuum Insulation Panels
        • Space Blanket
        • Building Insulation
          • Facade Insulation
          • Cavity Wall Insulation
          • Attic Insulation
    • Materials Science
      • Classification
      • Chemical Bonds
        • Ionic Bond
        • Metallic bond
        • Covalent bond
        • Hydrogen bond
      • Crystal Structures
        • Crystal Lattice
        • Body-centered Cubic
        • Face-centered Cubic
        • Hexagonal Close-packed
        • Packing Factor
        • Grain Structure
        • Polymorphism
      • Defects
        • Vacancy
        • Interstitial Defect
        • Substitutional Defect
        • Frenkel Defect
        • Dislocations
        • Planar Defects
      • Material Properties
        • Strength
        • Hooke’s law
        • Ductility
        • Malleability
        • Toughness
        • Brittleness
        • Resilience
        • Hardness
        • Creep
        • Thermal Properties
        • Electrical Properties
        • Magnetic Properties
      • Selected Materials
        • Water
        • Steam
        • Supercritical Fluid
        • Boron
        • Cadmium
        • Gadolinium
        • Liquid Metals
          • Sodium and NaK
          • Lead and Lead-bismuth Eutectic
    • Radiation Protection
      • Radioactivity
      • Units of Radioactivity
        • Curie
        • Becquerel
        • Rutherford
      • Decay Law
        • Decay Constant
        • Half-Life
      • Quantities and Units
      • Exposure
        • Roentgen – Unit
      • Kerma
      • Absorbed Dose
        • Gray – Unit
        • RAD – Unit
      • Equivalent Dose
        • Sievert – Unit
        • REM – Unit
      • Effective Dose
        • Committed Dose
        • Collective Dose
      • Biological Effects
        • Deterministic Effects
        • Stochastic Effects
        • LNT model
        • Radiation Hormesis
      • Protection
        • Dose Limits
        • Dose Monitoring
        • ALARA
        • Contamination
        • Internal Dose
      • Sources of Radiation
        • Natural Background
        • Cosmic Radiation
        • Terrestrial Radiation
        • Radon – Health Effects
        • Internal Radiation
        • Cosmogenic Radionuclides
        • Man-made Sources
        • Medical Exposures
        • Nuclear Fallout
        • Smoking Cigarettes
        • Electricity Generation
      • Fear of Radiation
    • Radiation Dosimetry
      • Radiation Dosimeter
      • Film Badge
      • TLD
      • Electronic Dosimeter
      • MOSFET Dosimeter
      • DIS Dosimeter
      • OSL Dosimeter
      • Self-Reading Dosimeters
      • Detectors in NPPs
        • Survey Meters
        • Hand & Shoe Monitor
        • Full-Body Monitor
        • Portal Monitor
        • Whole-Body Counter
        • Radiation Frisker
    • Radiation Detection
      • Detectors
        • Detection of Alpha
        • Detection of Beta
        • Detection of Gamma
        • Detection of X-Rays
        • Detection of Neutrons
        • Time of Flight
        • Dead Time
      • Gaseous Detectors
        • Detector Voltage
        • Ionization Chamber
        • Proportional Counter
        • Geiger Counter
      • Scintillation Counters
        • What is Scintillation
        • Inorganic Scintillators
        • NaI(Tl) scintillators
        • Organic Scintillators
        • Photomultiplier Tube
      • Semiconductors
        • Semiconductivity
        • Types of Semiconductors
        • Silicon Detectors
        • Germanium Detectors
        • HPGe Detectors
      • Gamma Spectroscopy
      • Cherenkov Detector
      • Calorimeter
      • Cloud Chamber
      • Self-Powered Detector
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